Architecture of Medieval India

Medieval Indian Architecture Overview

• Medieval rulers-built palaces, forts, tombs, temples, and mosques.
• Architecture represented both power and endurance of rulers.
• Surviving monuments reflect the diversity of medieval Indian architecture.

Architecture in India During the Early Medieval Period

• Early and medieval periods saw the construction of religious and secular monuments.
• These structures provide insights into the architectural styles of the time.

Temples in Early Medieval India

• Temples were the dominant building activity.
• They had specific structural elements that characterized their design.

Example of a Temple

• The Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujarat was built in the 11th century CE.

Temple Architecture in Medieval India

Key Structural Elements of Temples

• Kalasa: An inverted pitcher placed on top of the amalaka, from which the temple banner is hung.
• Shikhara or Vimana: The tower built over the garbhagriha.
• Garbhagriha: The inner sanctum where the main deity of the temple is housed.
• Amalaka: A stone disc that sits on top of the shikhara.
• Pradakshina: A path surrounding the deity where devotees walk to pay homage.
• Mandapa: A pillared assembly hall where devotees gather.
• Ardha Mandapa: A porch that precedes the mandapa.

Regional Styles of Temple Architecture

Different regions in India developed distinct styles of temple architecture:

• Nagara style (North Indian style)
• Dravidian style (South Indian style)
• Vesara style (Deccani style)

Temples Built in the Nagara Style

• Garbhagriha was always square in shape.
• Shikhara had a crowning element, the amalaka (a large ribbed stone disc).
• Amalaka was topped by a kalasa (a small dome or ‘water jug’).
• Shikhara had curving lines.

Examples of Nagara Style Temples (7th–13th centuries CE)

• Lingaraj Temple, Odisha
• Mukteshwara Temple, Odisha

Central Indian Temples

• Differed from Nagara-style temples.
• Included double amalaka, one large and another small, placed on top of each other.
• Example: Temples at Khajuraho (e.g., Kandariya Mahadeva Temple).

Temples Built in the Dravidian Style

• The vimana was a high pyramid-like tower with diminishing tiers.
• The temple stood on a square base.
• The shikhara was topped by a kalasa.
• There were usually two or four entrance gateways, called gopurams, at each cardinal direction.
• Gopurams were tall and elaborately sculpted with mythological figures.
• Pallavas and Cholas built many temples in this style.

Examples of Dravidian-Style Temples

• Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram
• Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram (both built by the Pallavas).
• Rathas at Mahabalipuram (built by the Pallavas, carved from single rock).

Temple Architecture and Other Structures in Medieval India

Temples Built in the Vesara Style

• Developed in the Deccan during the early medieval period.
• A blend of both Nagara (North Indian) and Dravidian (South Indian) styles.
• Prominent dynasties that contributed:
  • Chalukyas
  • Rashtrakutas
  • Hoysalas
• Examples of Vesara Style Temples:
  • Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu
  • Ramakka Temple, Chitradurga
  • Other temples in Karnataka

Other Structures in the Medieval Period

• Secular monuments (not just temples) were constructed for various purposes.
• These included:
  • Palaces
  • Forts
  • Stepwells (baolis)
  • Shelters
  • Entertainment centers
• Famous Secular Structures:
  • Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan
  • Baolis (stepwells) used for water storage, often built at caravan stops.
  • Islamic-style palaces built by medieval rulers.

Do and Learn Activity

• Research baolis (stepwells) in your region.
• Are they still in use today?
• Find and share pictures of other secular structures from the medieval period.

The Birth of Indo-Islamic Architecture

• The arrival of Turks, Afghans, and Mughals led to the Indo-Islamic style.
• This style blended local Indian elements with Islamic artistic traditions.

Mosques and Other Indo-Islamic Structures

Mosques

• Among the earliest structures built by Muslims in India.
• A typical mosque includes:
  • Minaret: A tower from which the call to prayer is announced.
  • Mihrab: A prayer niche in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca.
  • Sahn: A courtyard where people gather.
  • Prayer hall: The main area where people pray.
  • Wazukhana: The place where worshippers wash before prayers.

Notable Indo-Islamic Structures

• Qutb-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi): Among the first mosques built in India.
• Tomb of Iltutmish: Built by Iltutmish, a Delhi Sultanate ruler.
• Adhai Din ka Jhonpra (Ajmer): One of the earliest examples of Indo-Islamic architecture.
• Kali Bugrasi Mosque (Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh): Built during Babur’s reign (16th century).
• Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi): A precursor to the Taj Mahal, demonstrating the Mughal architectural style.

Other Indo-Islamic Structures

• Besides mosques, several other Indo-Islamic structures were built, including:
  • Idgahs (open prayer spaces)
  • Madrassas (educational institutions)
  • Sarai (inns/rest houses)
  • Baghs (gardens)
• Local architectural influences were stronger in regions farther from Delhi.
• Examples:
  • Jama Masjid (Bijapur) and Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) show Deccan-style architecture.
  • Mandu Fort (Madhya Pradesh) had elements similar to Delhi’s architecture, but Indore was closer to Delhi.

Case Study: Architecture Under Shah Jahan

Peak of Indo-Islamic Architecture

• Indo-Islamic architecture reached its height during the reign of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1628–1658).
• He focused on art, architecture, and aesthetics.
• His buildings were:
  • Elegant, delicate, and graceful.
  • Showed a strong Persian influence.
  • Used marble instead of red sandstone.
  • Had intricate inlay work with semi-precious stones.

Key Structures Built by Shah Jahan

• Taj Mahal (Agra): A masterpiece built using white marble.
• Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque, Delhi).
• Jama Masjid (Delhi): One of the largest mosques in India.
• Shifted capital from Agra to Delhi, where he built a new city Shahjahanabad.
• Developed gardens and canals.

Other Significant Mughal Structures

• Humayun’s Tomb: Built in Persian style during Akbar’s reign.
• Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad): Resembles Taj Mahal, built by Aurangzeb.
• Akbar’s Mausoleum (Sikandra, Agra): A massive structure with unique design elements.
• Buland Darwaza (Fatehpur Sikri): A grand gateway built by Akbar.

Architectural Monuments

The Taj Mahal

• A delicate and symmetrical monument built in memory of Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan.
• Made of glistening white marble.
• Inspired by Humayun’s Tomb.
• Built on a high platform with a square structure.
• Four small domes at the corners of the central dome.
• Minarets at each corner of the platform.
• Central dome is onion-shaped.
• Interior:
  • Cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan lie in the central hall.
  • Actual graves are below the cenotaphs.
  • Walls and ceilings feature Persian calligraphy.

The Jama Masjid, Delhi

• Largest mosque in India.
• Made of red sandstone.
• Features:
  • Large gateways.
  • Bulbous domes.
  • Minarets.
  • Can accommodate thousands of worshippers.
• Architectural Style:
  • A blend of Indian and Persian styles.
  • Marble and red sandstone used in harmony.
  • Includes Persian inlaid panels.

The Red Fort, Delhi

• A palace-fortress built by Shah Jahan.
• Key structures inside:
  • Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience).
  • Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience).
  • Rang Mahal (Colorful Palace) with golden decorations.
• Significance:
  • Prime Minister of India hoists the national flag from the fort’s ramparts every August 15th (Independence Day).

EXERCISES

1. Fill in the blanks
2. South Indian temples were built in the Dravidian
3. The Deccan style of architecture is also known as the Vesara
4. The Kailashanath Temple at Ellora is a rock-cut temple.
5. The most important temple of Thanjavur was built by Rajaraja Chola.
6. The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built by Shah Jahan.
7. Write True or False. Correct the false statements
8. The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur was built by Rajendra Chola. (False)
   Correction: It was built by Rajaraja Chola.
9. Havelis are examples of secular architecture. (True)
10. The construction of Qutub Minar was completed by Iltutmish. (True)
11. The architecture of the Bahmani Kings had Turkish (True)
12. The Jama Masjid in Delhi was built by Aurangzeb. (False)
    Correction: It was built by Shah Jahan.

III. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. The part of the temple marked by the arrow shows its:
   Answer: (d) Shikhara
2. One of these temples is an example of the Deccan style of architecture:
   Answer: (b) The Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur

LIFE SKILLS

• Debate Question:
  • The Taj Mahal is considered one of the most beautiful monuments, but it required vast amounts of time, effort, and money.
  • In today’s world, is it fair to spend vast resources on a single monument while issues like poverty and hunger exist?
  • Class Activity: Debate or discuss this topic in class.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Model Making

• Create a model of a typical temple or mosque using:
  • Clay
  • Thermocol
  • Cardboard
• Mark the main structural parts on the model.

Art Work

• Look at Pietra Dura work (marble inlay art).
• Recreate a design/motif using marble paper.

Discussion Questions on Artefact Transfer and Preservation

• How did large-scale transfer of artefacts from India to Europe happen?
• Impact of stolen artefacts:
  • How does loss of artefacts affect the country of origin?
  • Should artefacts be returned to their home country?
• Challenges in returning artefacts:
  • Issues like preservation, historical value, and ownership need to be considered.
• Effective methods of preservation:
  • Discuss the best ways to preserve historical artefacts.

1. Answer the following questions in brief
2. What are the distinctive features of shikharas built in the Nagara style?
   • The shikhara in Nagara style temples is tall, curvilinear, and rises sharply.
   • It is crowned by an amalaka (a ribbed stone disc) and a kalasa (a small dome or pitcher).
3. What are the main characteristics of temples in Central India?
   • Central Indian temples feature double amalaka (one large and another small).
   • The shikhara is often more elaborately carved.
   • Example: Temples at Khajuraho.
4. Name any two distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture.
   • Use of domes and arches instead of flat roofs.
   • Presence of minarets and calligraphy inscriptions.
5. How did Mandu affect the architectural style used by the Delhi Sultans?
   • Mandu’s architecture had strong Persian influences.
   • The Delhi Sultans adopted arches, domes, and decorative elements seen in Mandu.
6. Describe the salient features of the Red Fort in Delhi.
   • Built by Shah Jahan as a palace-fortress.
   • Contains Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, and Rang Mahal.
   • Features red sandstone walls and intricate marble inlay work.
   • Prime Minister hoists the national flag from its ramparts every August 15th.

1. Answer the following questions in detail

1. Distinguish between temples built in the Nagara and Dravidian styles.
   • Nagara Style:
     • Found in North India.
     • Curvilinear shikhara with amalaka on top.
     • No boundary walls around the temple.
   • Dravidian Style:
     • Found in South India.
     • Pyramidal vimana with diminishing tiers.
     • Enclosed within large boundary walls, with gopurams (gateway towers).

2. Since the term Vesara is used to indicate hybrid architecture, is it justified? Explain.
   • Yes, the Vesara style combines elements of Nagara and Dravidian
   • Example: Hoysalas and Chalukyas built Vesara-style temples blending both styles.
3. Shah Jahan is considered an outstanding builder. Do you agree? Validate your answer with examples.
   • Yes, Shah Jahan is regarded as an outstanding builder.
   • He built:
     • Taj Mahal (symbol of love, white marble structure).
     • Jama Masjid (Delhi) (largest mosque in India).
     • Red Fort (grand fortress with intricate carvings).
   • His architecture focused on grace, symmetry, and Persian influences.

Match the Following Questions with Answers

1. Match the temple style with its characteristics:

• Answer:
  • 1 → c) Curvilinear Shikhara
  • 2 → a) Pyramidal Vimana
  • 3 → b) Blend of Nagara and Dravidian

2. Match the Mughal ruler with the monument they built:

• Answer:
  • 1 → b) Taj Mahal
  • 2 → a) Buland Darwaza
  • 3 → c) Kali Bugrasi Mosque
  • 4 → d) Bibi Ka Maqbara

3. Match the temple element with its description:

• Answer:
  • 1 → c) Tower over the sanctum
  • 2 → a) Inner sanctum of a temple
  • 3 → b) Pillared assembly hall
  • 4 → d) Path for circumambulation

4. Match the Indo-Islamic architectural features with their function:

• Answer:
  • 1 → c) Large central structure for stability
  • 2 → a) Call to prayer
  • 3 → b) Entrance niche pointing towards Mecca
  • 4 → d) Open gathering space for prayers

5. Match the place with the famous monument located there:

• Answer:
  • 1 → c) Buland Darwaza
  • 2 → b) Red Fort
  • 3 → a) Qutub Minar
  • 4 → d) Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra

1 Mark Questions with Answers

1. What are the three main styles of temple architecture in medieval India?

• Answer: Nagara, Dravidian, and Vesara.

2. What is the name of the inner sanctum of a Hindu temple?

• Answer: Garbhagriha.

3. What is the function of a Mandapa in a temple?

• Answer: It is a pillared assembly hall where devotees gather.

4. Which architectural element is placed on top of the shikhara in Nagara temples?

• Answer: Amalaka.

5. Which dynasty built the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur?

• Answer: The Chola dynasty.

6. Which architectural style is a blend of Nagara and Dravidian styles?

• Answer: Vesara style.

7. Name one example of a temple built in the Nagara style.

• Answer: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho.

8. Which ruler built the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora?

• Answer: The Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I.

9. Which temple architecture style features a high pyramidal tower called Vimana?

• Answer: Dravidian style.

10. What is the main purpose of a Pradakshina path in a temple?

• Answer: It is a path around the deity for circumambulation by devotees.

11. Which Mughal ruler is known as the greatest patron of Indo-Islamic architecture?

• Answer: Shah Jahan.

12. Name the Mughal ruler who built the Red Fort in Delhi.

• Answer: Shah Jahan.

13. What is the largest mosque in India?

• Answer: Jama Masjid, Delhi.

14. Name the Mughal ruler who built the Buland Darwaza.

• Answer: Akbar.

15. What is the name of the art technique used in the Taj Mahal for marble inlay work?

• Answer: Pietra Dura.

16. Which Mughal ruler built the Taj Mahal and in memory of whom?

• Answer: Shah Jahan built it in memory of Mumtaz Mahal.

17. What is the function of a Minaret in a mosque?

• Answer: It is a tower from which the call to prayer is given.

18. Name the Persian architectural feature seen in Indo-Islamic structures.

• Answer: The dome.

19. Which Sultan built the Qutb-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi?

• Answer: Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

20. Which architectural structure in Delhi is known for its towering height and inscriptions?

• Answer: Qutub Minar.

21. What is the significance of the Red Fort in modern India?

• Answer: The Prime Minister hoists the national flag here on Independence Day (August 15).

22. What is a Sarai in Indo-Islamic architecture?

• Answer: A rest house or inn for travelers.

23. Name the architectural gateway that serves as the entrance to Fatehpur Sikri.

• Answer: Buland Darwaza.

24. What is the name of the palace-fortress built by Shah Jahan in Delhi?

• Answer: Red Fort.

25. Name one Indo-Islamic structure built by Iltutmish.

• Answer: The Tomb of Iltutmish.

Two-Mark Questions with Answers

1. What are the key differences between Nagara and Dravidian temple styles?

• Answer:
  • Nagara style: Found in North India, has a curvilinear shikhara and no boundary walls.
  • Dravidian style: Found in South India, features a pyramidal vimana and enclosed with large boundary walls and gopurams.

2. What is the significance of the Garbhagriha in a Hindu temple?

• Answer: The Garbhagriha is the inner sanctum where the main deity of the temple is housed. Only priests are allowed inside to perform rituals.

3. Explain the role of Minarets in a mosque.

• Answer: Minarets are tall towers from which the call to prayer (Azaan) is given. They also serve as architectural features that enhance the grandeur of mosques.

4. What is the purpose of the Mandapa in a temple?

• Answer: A Mandapa is a pillared hall in a temple where devotees gather for prayers, rituals, and religious ceremonies.

5. Describe two features of Indo-Islamic architecture.

• Answer:
  • Use of domes and arches instead of flat roofs.
  • Elaborate calligraphy and geometric patterns instead of idol carvings.

6. What is the function of the Pradakshina path in a temple?

• Answer: The Pradakshina path is a circular walkway around the deity, where devotees walk in a clockwise direction as a form of worship.

7. Why is the Taj Mahal considered a masterpiece of Mughal architecture?

• Answer: The Taj Mahal is admired for its symmetry, white marble construction, intricate inlay work (Pietra Dura), and massive dome, representing grace and Mughal grandeur.

8. What are the main characteristics of Vesara-style temple architecture?

• Answer:
  • A mix of Nagara and Dravidian styles, developed in the Deccan region.
  • Used elaborate carvings, short towers, and ornate pillars.

9. Which Mughal ruler built the Red Fort, and why is it historically significant?

• Answer:
  • Built by: Shah Jahan in Delhi.
  • Significance: It served as a royal residence and is now where the Prime Minister hoists the national flag on Independence Day (August 15).

10. What is the significance of the Buland Darwaza?

• Answer:
  • Built by Akbar to commemorate his victory in Gujarat.
  • It is the grand entrance to Fatehpur Sikri, made of red sandstone with calligraphy inscriptions.

11. What were the main influences on the Indo-Islamic style of architecture?

• Answer:
  • Persian and Central Asian influences, especially domes, minarets, and intricate geometric patterns.
  • Use of red sandstone, marble, and calligraphy instead of idol carvings.

12. What are the distinctive features of Humayun’s Tomb?

• Answer:
  • First Mughal garden tomb in India, built in Persian architectural style.
  • Has a large central dome, symmetrical design, and Persian-style gardens (Charbagh).

13. What is Pietra Dura, and where is it prominently used?

• Answer:
  • Pietra Dura is an inlay technique using semi-precious stones to create floral patterns.
  • Used extensively in the Taj Mahal for decoration.

14. Why was the Jama Masjid in Delhi built, and what makes it unique?

• Answer:
  • Built by Shah Jahan as a grand mosque for public prayers.
  • Unique for: Its large courtyard, red sandstone construction, and Persian-style domes and minarets.

15. What was the role of stepwells (Baolis) in medieval architecture?

• Answer:
  • Stepwells (Baolis) were built for water conservation, especially in arid regions.
  • Also served as rest stops for travelers, providing shelter and drinking water.